Research Outputs
Variability in the energy reserves of swordfish (Xiphias gladius) of the southeastern Pacific Ocean: A temporal and intra-individual perspective
The temporal dynamics of energy reserves are associated with the physiological processes (i.e., reproduction) in marine fishes, in which storage organs play a key role for efficient energy investment. We evaluated the temporal (i.e., seasons) and intra-individual (i.e., organs) dynamics of adult female swordfish (Xiphias gladius) during its feeding period off the Chilean coast in the southeastern Pacific Ocean (SEPO). The biochemical composition (i.e., lipids, proteins, and glucose), energy content and fatty acid profile of the muscle, liver and gonad were evaluated during the austral autumn, winter, and spring. Our results showed principally an intra-individual effect in both the muscle and liver in the autumn and spring. Herein, a trend of higher amounts of lipids and total energy were found in the muscle, while the liver showed greater protein and glucose contents. Consequently, the muscle showed a higher saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acid contents than the liver. Although the gonad showed no significant temporal effect in the lipids and proteins contents, an increasing trend of each biochemical constituent, fatty acid group and gonadosomatic index were found from autumn to winter. Consistently, the glucose and total energy content as well Fulton's condition factor were significantly higher in winter. These findings reflect the spatial-temporal physiological dynamic of swordfish based on the storage of energy reserves in different organs during its feeding period. In this way, the products obtained from swordfish could have an added value depending on the season and capture zone, which could benefit the exploitation and regulation measures of this resource under an ecological approach of conservation and sustainability in the SEPO.
Bioenergetic status of swordfish (Xiphias gladius) during the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the Southeast Pacific Ocean: An interannual scale
The bioenergetic status of fishes has been used to study their physiological responses to temporal changes at interannual scales. We evaluated the physiological responses of swordfish at an interannual scale from the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): warm phase “El Niño” in 2015 to the cold phase “La Niña” in 2017 and under neutral conditions as well in 2019. Herein, muscle samples from females and males were analyzed to evaluate the bioenergetic status from their biochemical constituents (L: lipids, P: proteins and G: glucose, E: total energy, and FAs: fatty acid profile), elemental composition (C: carbon, N: nitrogen, H: hydrogen), and nutritional indices (L:P, C:N, DHA/C18:1n-3, DHA/C16:0 and ω3/ω6 FAs). The physiological response of swordfish showed an interaction between the year and sex. Herein, the L and E showed similar trends, with the lowest female values found in 2015 and the highest in 2019. Contrary, males showed their highest values in 2015 and lowest in 2019. FA profile differed among years and highlighted significant differences between females and males in 2019. Although the female L:P and C:N ratios were lower in 2015 than in 2017, a decreasing trend in these ratios was found from 2017 to 2019. Moreover, DHA/C18:1n-3, DHA/C16:0 and ω3/ω6 showed higher ratios in females than males in 2019. Our results coincide with the beginning of the ENSO phases; it is therefore likely that the swordfish diet changed in response to the disturbances in environmental conditions. Furthermore, the degree of individual dietary specialization found under the neutral conditions could indicate differences in the feeding behaviors of males vs. females, which may be an adaptive strategy in this species. These findings will aid in understanding the bioenergetic status of swordfish under different climatic scenarios and the current global warming, providing relevant information for the management of this resource.
Temporal and inter-individual changes in the integrated biochemical condition of the gonads of female swordfish (Xiphias gladius) from the Southeastern Pacific Ocean
The integrated biochemical condition (IBC) of gonads is closely related to the reproductive success of highly migratory marine species. The IBC of gonads can be influenced not only by size and/or age, but also by environmental conditions. Here, female swordfish, Xiphias gladius, that migrate to temperate regions with a marked seasonality (e.g., the Southeastern Pacific Ocean, SEPO) were compared in relation to the IBCs (lipids, proteins, glucose and, fatty acid profiles) of their gonads; individuals with two body size ranges and distinct degrees of sexual maturity were evaluated, and considered as: small and/or virginal (SV: <170 cm lower jaw fork-length (LJFL), oocyte size (OS) <0.08 mm) vs large and/or maturing females (LM: >190 cm LJFL, OS >0.133 mm). This comparison was conducted in two environmentally contrasting seasons (winter vs spring). Our results showed that the gonadosomatic index (GSI) was significantly higher in LM than SV. Lipid contents varied significantly between seasons and body sizes. The highest lipid concentrations were recorded in the spring in large females. No significant differences were found when comparing the protein and glucose contents of the two evaluated seasons or body size ranges of the studied females. In turn, the fatty acid (FA) profiles of female gonads significantly varied for both seasons and body size ranges. A high content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were recorded in female gonads in the spring. The SFAs C16:0 and C18:0, the MUFA C18:1n9, and the essential PUFA C22:6n3 were the main contributors to the observed differences between spring and winter. These results could be used as indicators of the nutritional condition and health status of swordfish individuals. Hence, the IBC of female swordfish gonads have great potential to aid in estimating survival rates and stock abundances of this species. The integration of this information constitutes an asset in fishery management models with an ecosystem approach.
Biochemical-ecological composition and bio-stoichiometric ratios of swordfish (Xiphias gladius) gonads in the Southeastern Pacific Ocean
Swordfish (Xiphias gladius), a highly migratory fishery resource of great importance in the Southeastern Pacific Ocean (SEPO), is a species with late sexual maturation, high longevity, and a large body size that spawns and reproduces several times throughout its adulthood. In the present study, we hypothesized that the Biochemical-Ecological Composition (BEC) of the gonad (measured as the lipid, protein, glucose, and energy contents) and its bio-stoichiometric ratios (lipid/protein: L/P; lipid/ glucose: L/G) would be influenced by both female body size (lower jaw fork length in cm, LJFL: <180, 180–260, >260) and time (trimesters: 1,2,3; years: 2017, 2019). Our results revealed that in relation to their body size, female swordfish gonads varied significantly in their BEC, but not in their L/P and L/G ratios during their quarterly development within an annual cycle. These variations in the BEC were noticeable in females of medium (180–260) and larger (>260) sizes. Particularly, as the year progressed, females stored significant amounts of energy during their trophic migration, made evident by the increase in the lipid and protein contents of the gonads, which reached maximum levels towards the end of the year, during the second and third trimesters. These high energy reserves can be used for the reproduction during the last trimester of the year (i.e. austral spring–summer), when the warm temperature and high productivity in the SEPO are optimal for the successful development of oocytes. Future studies considering an ecosystem approach should analyze the classes of lipids and types of fatty acids that are involved in the reproduction of this species, and how they are acquired through the consumption of lipid-rich prey, and subsequently metabolized to be used in reproduction and during early ontogeny.
Seasonal dynamics of biochemical composition and fatty acids of swordfish (Xiphias gladius) in the Southeast Pacific Ocean off the coast of Chile
In the Southeast Pacific Ocean, Xiphias gladius migrates through the Chilean coastal zone for feeding. Here, it forages for different prey items from autumn to spring, acquiring a great variety of energy and nutritional reserves. We evaluated seasonal variations in the biochemical reserves (i.e., contents of lipids, proteins, and glucose), total energy content and fatty acid profile of specimens captured during the austral autumn, winter, and spring. Our results show that higher amounts of lipids were found in the winter and spring, while protein and glucose were higher in the autumn. Thus, the energy content showed significant differences, with higher levels in winter and spring. Furthermore, the fatty acid profile was more diverse in the spring than the autumn and winter and was characterized by higher amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids. These findings suggest that temporal changes in the biochemical reserves, total energy content and fatty acid profile support the idea of a “trophic migration” (i.e., the feeding period) established by the dynamics of fishery fleets. The high amounts of lipids and diverse fatty acid profile found in the spring could indicate the end of the trophic migration during this season. Thus, X. gladius may reach an optimum nutritional condition in the spring and make energetic adjustments to carry out its reproductive migration during the austral summer. Therefore, this species seems to meet the high energy demands of the reproductive season by foraging for a wide range of prey items from autumn to spring and storing an increased amount of lipids at the end of the feeding period. Overall, our data provides crucial baseline knowledge for future research on the ecophysiology of X. gladius, as well as for the management and conservation of this fishery resource under an ecosystem approach.